The crucifixion of Jesus
In this article, I shall discuss some of the physical aspects of the
passion, or suffering, of Jesus Christ. We shall follow Him from
Gethsemane, through His trial, His scourging, His path along the Via
Dolorosa, to His last dying hours on the cross.
I suddenly realized that I had taken the crucifixion more or less
for granted all these years - that I had grown callous to its horror by
a too easy familiarity with the grim details - and a too distant
friendship with Him. It finally occurred to me that as a physician, I
did not even know the actual immediate cause of death. The Gospel
writers do not help us very much on this point, because crucifixion and
scourging were so common during their lifetime that they undoubtedly
considered a detailed description totally superfluous - so we have the
concise words of the Evangelist: "Pilate, having scourged Jesus,
delivered Him to them to be crucified - and they crucified Him".
What did the body of Jesus of Nazareth actually endure during those
hours of torture?
This led me first to a study of the practice of crucifixion itself;
that is, the torture and execution of a person by fixation to a cross.
The upright portion of the cross (or stipes) could have the crossarm
(or patibulum) attached two or three feet below it's top (this is what
we commonly think of today as the classic form of the cross, the one
which we have later named the Latin cross). However, the common form
used in our Lord's day was the Tau cross, shaped like the Greek letter
Tau or like our "T". In this cross the patibulum was placed in a notch
at the top of the stipes. There is fairly overwhelming archaeological
evidence that it was on this type of cross that Jesus was crucified.
The upright post, or stipes, was generally fixed in the ground at
the site of execution and the condemned man was forced to carry the
patibulum, apparently weighing about 110 pounds, from the prison to the
place of execution. Roman historical accounts and experimental work
have shown that the nails were driven between the small bones of the
wrists and not through the palms. Nails driven trough the palms will
strip out between the fingers when they support the weight of a human
body. The misconception may have come about through a misunderstanding
of Jesus' words to Thomas, "observe my hands". Anatomists, both modern
and ancient, have always considered the wrists as part of the hand.
A titulus, or small sign, stating the victim's crime was usually
carried at the front of the procession and later nailed to the cross
above the head. This sign with it's staff nailed to the top of the
cross would have given it somewhat the characteristic form of the Latin
cross.
The physical passion of Christ began in Gethsemane. Of the many
aspects of this initial suffering, I shall only discuss the one of
physiological interest, the bloody sweat. It is interesting that the
physician of the group, St. Luke, is the only one to mention this. He
says, "And being in agony, He prayed the longer. And his sweat became
as drops of blood, trickling down upon the ground".
Though very rare, the phenomenon of Hematidrosis, or bloody sweat,
is well documented. Under great emotional stress, tiny capillaries in
the sweat glands can break, thus mixing blood with sweat. This process
alone could have produced marked weakness and possible shock.
We shall move rapidly through the betrayal and arrest. I must stress
again that important portions of the Passion story are missing from
this account. This may be frustrating to you, but in order to adhere to
our purpose of discussion only of the purely physical aspect of the
Passion, this is necessary. After the arrest in the middle of the
night, Jesus was brought before the Sanhedrin and Caiaphas, the High
Priest; it is here that the first physical trauma was inflicted. A
soldier struck Jesus across the face for remaining silent when
questioned by Caiaphas. The palace guards then blindfolded Him and
mockingly taunted Him to identify each of them as they passed by, spat
on Him, and struck Him in the face.
In the morning, Jesus, battered and bruised, dehydrated, and
exhausted from a sleepless night, is taken across Jerusalem to the
Praetorian of the Fortress Antonia, the seat of government of the
Procurator of Judea, Pontius Pilate. You are, of course, familiar with
Pilate's action in attempting to pass responsibility to Herod Antipas,
the Tetrarch of Judea. Jesus apparently suffered no physical
mistreatment at the hands of Herod and was returned to Pilate. It was
then, in response to the cries of the mob, that Pilate ordered Barabbas
released and condemned Jesus to scourging and crucifixion. Most Roman
writers from this period do not associate the two. Many scholars
believe that Pilate originally ordered Jesus scourged as his full
punishment and that the death sentence by crucifixion came only in
response to the taunt by the mob that the Procurator was not properly
defending Caesar against this pretender who claimed to be the "KING OF
THE JEWS".
Preparations for the scourging are carried out. The prisoner is
stripped of His clothing and His hands tied to a post above His head.
It is doubtful whether the Romans made any attempt to follow the Jewish
law in this matter of scourging. The Jews had an ancient law
prohibiting more than forty lashes. The Pharisees, always making sure
that the law was strictly kept, insisted that only thirty-nine lashes
be given. (In this way, they were sure of remaining within the law in
case of a miscount). The Roman legionnaire steps forward with the
flagrum in his hand. This is a short whip consisting of several heavy,
leather thongs with two small balls of lead attached near the ends of
each. The heavy whip is brought down with full force again and again
across Jesus' shoulders, back, and legs. At first the heavy thongs cut
through the skin only. Then as blows continue, they cut deeper into the
tissues, producing first an oozing of blood from the capillaries and
veins of the skin, and finally spurting arterial bleeding from vessels
in the underlying muscles. The small balls of lead first produce large,
deep bruises which are broken open by subsequent blows. Finally the
skin of the back is hanging in long ribbons and the entire area is an
unrecognizable mass of torn, bleeding tissue. When it is determined by
the centurion in charge that the prisoner is near death, the beating is
finally stopped.
The half-fainting Jesus is then untied and allowed to slump to the
stone pavement, wet with His own blood. The Roman soldiers see a great
joke in this provincial Jew claiming to be a king. They throw a robe
across His shoulders and place a stick in His hand for a scepter. They
still need a crown to make their travesty complete. A small bundle of
flexible branches covered with long thorns (commonly used for firewood)
are plaited into a shape of a crown and this is pressed into His scalp.
Again there is copious bleeding (the scalp being one of the most
vascular areas of the body). After mocking Him and striking Him across
the face, the soldiers take the stick from His hand and strike Him
across the head, driving the thorns deeper into His scalp. Finally,
they tire of their sadistic sport and the robe is torn from His back.
This had already become adherent to the clots of blood and serum in the
wounds, and it's removal, just as in the careless removal of a surgical
bandage, causes excruciating pain... almost as though He were again
being whipped - and the wounds begin to bleed again.
In deference to Jewish custom, the Romans return His garments. The
heavy patibulum of the cross is tied across His shoulders, and the
procession of the condemned Christ, two thieves, and the execution
detail of Roman soldiers headed by a centurion, begins it's slow
journey. In spite of His efforts to walk erect, the weight of the heavy
wooden beam, together with the shock produced by copious blood loss, is
too much. He stumbles and falls. The rough wood of the beam gouges into
the lacerated skin and muscles of the shoulders. The centurion, anxious
to get on with the crucifixion, selects a stalwart North African
onlooker - Simon of Cyrene, to carry the cross. Jesus follows, still
bleeding and sweating the cold, clammy sweat of shock. The 650 yard
journey to Golgotha is finally completed. The prisoner is again
stripped of His clothes - except for a loin cloth which is allowed the
Jews.
The crucifixion begins. Jesus is offered wine mixed with Myrrh, a
mild analgesic mixture. He refuses to drink. Simon is ordered to place
the patibulum on the ground and Jesus is quickly thrown backward with
His shoulders against the wood. The legionnaire feels for the
depression at the front of the wrist. He drives a heavy, square,
wrought-iron nail through the wrist and deep into the wood. Quickly he
moves to the other side and repeats the action, being careful not to
pull the arms too tightly, but to allow some flexion and movement. The
patibulum is then lifted in place at the top of the stipes and the
titulus reading "Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews" is nailed in
place.
The left foot is pressed backward against the right foot, and with
both feet extended and toes down, a nail is driven through the arch of
each, leaving the knees moderately flexed. The victim is now crucified.
As He slowly sags down with more weight on the nails in the wrists,
excruciating - fiery pain shoots along the fingers and up the arms to
explode in the brain as the nails in the wrists are putting pressure on
the median nerves. As He pushes Himself upward to avoid this stretching
torment, He places His full weight on the nail tearing through the
nerves between the metatarsal bones of the feet.
At this point, another phenomenon occurs. As the arms fatigue, great
waves of cramps sweep over the muscles, knotting them in deep,
relentless, throbbing pain. With these cramps comes the inability to
push Himself upward. Hanging by His arms, the pectoral muscles are
paralyzed and the intercostal muscles are unable to act. Air can be
drawn into the lungs, but cannot be exhaled. Jesus fights to raise
Himself in order to get even one short breath. Finally, carbon dioxide
builds up in the lungs and in the blood stream and the cramps partially
subside. Spasmodically, He is able to push Himself upward to exhale and
bring in the life-giving oxygen. It was undoubtedly during these
periods that He uttered the seven short sentences which are recorded:
The first, looking down at the Roman soldiers throwing dice for His
seamless garment, "Father, forgive them for they know not what they do."
The second, to the persistent thief, "Today thou shalt be with me in
Paradise."
The third, looking down at the terrified, grief stricken, adolescent
John (the beloved Apostle), he said, "Behold thy mother", and looking
to Mary, His mother, "Woman, behold thy son."
The fourth cry is from the beginning of the 22nd Psalm, "My God, my
God, why hast thou forsaken me?"
Hours of this limitless pain, cycles of twisting, joint-rending
cramps, intermittent partial asphyxiation, searing pain as the tissue
is torn from His lacerated back as He moves up and down against the
rough timber. Then another agony begins. A deep crushing pain deep in
the chest as the pericardium slowly fills with serum and begins to
compress the heart.
Let us remember again the 22nd Psalm, verse 14: "I am poured out
like water, and all my bones are out of joint; my heart is like wax; it
is melted in the midst of my bowels."
It is now almost over - the loss of tissue fluids has reached a
critical level, the compressed heart is struggling to pump heavy,
thick, sluggish blood into the tissues, the tortured lungs are making a
frantic effort to gasp in small gulps of air. The markedly dehydrated
tissues send their flood of stimuli to the brain.
Jesus gasps His fifth cry, "I thirst."
Let us remember another verse from the prophetic 22nd Psalm: "My
strength is dried up like a potsherd; and my tongue cleaveth to my
jaws; and thou hast brought me into the dust of death."
A sponge soaked in Posca, the cheap, sour wine which is the staple
drink of the Roman legionnaires, is lifted to His lips. He apparently
does not take any of the liquid. The body of Jesus is now in extremis,
and He can feel the chill of death creeping through His tissues. This
realization brings out His sixth words, possibly little more than a
tortured whisper: "It is finished."
His mission of atonement has been completed. Finally He can allow
His body to die.
With one last surge of strength, He once again presses His torn feet
against the nail, straightens His legs, takes a deeper breath, and
utters His seventh and last cry: "Father, into thy hands I commit my
spirit."
The rest you know. In order that the Sabbath not be profaned, the
Jews asked that the condemned men be dispatched and removed from the
crosses. The common method of ending a crucifixion was by
crurefracture, the breaking of the legs. This prevented the victim from
pushing himself upward; the tension could not be relieved from the
muscles of the chest, and rapid suffocation then occurred. The legs of
the two thieves were broken, but when they came to Jesus, they saw that
this was unnecessary.
Apparently to make doubly sure of death, the legionnaire drove his
lance through the fifth interspace between the ribs, upward through the
pericardium and into the heart. The 34th verse of the 19th chapter of
the Gospel according to St. John: "And immediately there came out blood
and water." Thus there was an escape of watery fluid from the sac
surrounding the heart and blood from the interior of heart. We
therefore, have rather conclusive postmortem evidence that our Lord
died, not the usual crucifixion death by suffocation, but of heart
failure due to shock and a constriction of the heart by fluid in the
pericardium.
Thus we have seen a glimpse of the epitomy of evil which man can
exhibit toward man - and toward God. This is not a pretty sight and is
apt to leave us despondent and depressed. How grateful we can be that
we have a sequel, a glimpse of the infinite mercy of God toward man -
the miracle of the atonement and the expectation of Easter morning! ../ |